Social problems Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Social problems - Coursework Example On the other hand, the subjective element of social problems refers to the belief that a certain social condition is harmful to the society, or to a section of the society and it can be changed. Problems such as drug addiction, poverty, crime and pollution do exist. These conditions are not considered as social problems but they can cause a lot of destruction is a society (Eitzen and Zinn 2). What is the difference between norm violations and social conditions as types of social problems? Which is a person blame and which a systems blame approach? Why doe the authors of this book believe the focus should be on social conditions (system blame) rather than norm violations (person blame)? Do you agree with them? Why or why not? As social problems, norm violations tend to assume that there is a standard behavior. People studying norm violations are normally interested in failures in the society criminals, the school dropouts, and the mental ill. On the other hand, norm violations are symptoms of social problems and not the problem itself. For example, deviants are victims who need to entirely carry the blame. The second type of social problems involves conditions that tend to cause material and psychic suffering for some people. In addition, there is the person-blame approach which is the approach of understanding people’s social problems. In this approach, those who deviate are considered as the source of trouble. The authors of this book believe that the focus should be on system blame and not person blame since blaming an individual gives the government a chance to take control of dissidents more easily. In most cases, deviants are normally sent to hospitals or prisons for rehabilitation. It is th erefore right for the authors to base on system blame (Eitzen and Zinn 4). Welfare state capitalism is a type of capitalism is a type of capitalism that has

Book Review Template Essay Example for Free

Book Review Template Essay Summary: This can come from the book jacket or a website, but it must be concise and it must be cited. You may also choose to write your own summary; in which case you should briefly tell the reader what the story is about. Where and when does it take place? Who are the main characters? What kinds of problems they run into? My Review: Begin by explaining why you chose this book in the first place. Next, comment on the connections you discovered between the characters/people in the book and your own personal experiences (text to self), other characters or people youve read about or encountered in film or television (text to text), or people youve heard about in real life (text to world). Follow this with your opinion of the book. What did you like about it? Give an example (quote a passage) and explain why you liked this. Comment on what you did not like about the book. Give an example (quote a passage) and explain why you did not like this. (In commenting on what you did or didnt like, consider writing about how well the author: brings characters or people to life, holds your interest in terms of telling the story, or utilizes language to paint a clear and interesting picture of the characters, the setting, and the action of the story.) Important note: Do NOT give away the storys ending. Conclude with your recommendation for other readers. Do you recommend this book? Why and for whom? (Consider age, reading level, genre, and subject.) Rating: How many stars do you give this book on a scale of 1-5? Credentials: Describe your credentials as a reader. (Start by identifying your status as a student: class name and period, and school name.) Then, describe what kind of reader you are. (How often do you read? How much do you read? What kind of books or text types do you typically read for your  own purposes?)

Cardiovascular Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids

Cardiovascular Effects of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids Table of Contents ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION BODY: ANABOLIC ANDROGENIC STEROIDS Effects Desired Effects Adverse Effects CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS BIBLIOGRAPHY ABSTRACT Doping is a global phenomenon present in international sporting events. International sports federations, led by the International Olympic Committee, and the World Anti-doping agency (WADA), have for the past half century attempted to prohibit the spread of this problem, however, there is still a lot left to be desired. The apparent lack of information with respect to the cardiovascular effects of anabolic steroid usage in competitive sports precipitated the need for a literature review to present scientific knowledge of the possible effects to the general public. The literature review led to detailed explanations of the cardiovascular effects of anabolic androgenic steroids, their mechanisms of actions and delved into the basis underlying why long-term abuse of these substances leads to physiologic malfunctions such as left ventricular hypertrophy, myocardial infarctions and sudden cardiac death. INTRODUCTION The creed of the Olympics states that: â€Å"The important thing in games is not winning but taking part. The essential thing is not conquering, but fighting well†1. While the objective above is lofty and conveys a sense of discipline and integrity, little of it can be found in the reality of today’s sports world. Doping, which can be explained as the use of a substance (such as an anabolic steroid or erythropoietin) or technique (such as gene doping – the use of modified or normal genetic cells) to illegally enhance athletic performance, has become an essential topic in almost every sport and has somehow been exposed in athletes of all ages and at every level of competition2. Doping substances are not unique to modern sports competitions. Their inception dates back to 776 BC when plants and mixtures of wine and herbs were used by the early Greek Olympic athletes and Roman gladiators competing in Circus Maximus. Not only were they used for their stimulating effects in speed and endurance events, but also for their ability to mask pain, permitting injured athletes to continue competing. This was a familiar practice that continued until heroin and cocaine became legally accessible by prescription in the 1920s. At this point, there was an upsurge in the number of athletes using stimulants as doping substances. During the 1930s, amphetamines also evolved and emerged as the stimulant of choice for athletes. By the time Ben Johnson’s gold medal was stripped off in the 1988 Seoul Olympics for using the steroid stanazalol, the world had become much aware of the incidence of doping in sport. The Medical Commission, under the International Olympic Committee (IOC), established a list of illegal substances in 1967 and introduced anti-doping testing of athletes in the 1972 Munich Games. It was clear at this point that doping substances did perform their expected functions and, if allowed to continue unchecked, would wreak havoc not only to the integrity of sports, but also to the health of sportsmen. A number of world class sportspeople, including sprinters like Tyson Gay, Justin Gatlin and Asafa Powell, cyclists like Lance Armstrong and Floyd Landis, footballers like Kolo Toure and Adrian Mutu and fast bowlers like Shoaib Akhtar and Mohammed Asif, have been associated with doping. During sports, the rate at which blood is pumped from the heart to the various organs increases and this translates to an increased cardiac output. Cardiac output can be determined by the heart rate (beats per minute) and stroke volume (volume of blood pumped per beat or stroke). Doping drugs exert their influence on these parameters either by downplaying or exceeding normal heart function. Some doping drugs cause irregular heartbeats, tachycardia (a rapid heart rate of more than 100 beats per minute) and increased blood pressure. Other drugs have the capacity of blocking fast sodium channels competitively in nerve cells, hence reducing the amplitude of the action potential and rate of depolarisation, which can cause cardiac dysrhythmias.3 The stark reality of today’s sports industry, rife with heavy investments and large cash prizes, makes it unsurprising to see athletes and coaches going several lengths to gain competitive advantages and enhance performance at all costs, even to the detriment of the athletes’ health1. Worldwide, there are varying forms of doping substances being misused by professional sportsmen, with some being more common and others being potentially unknown. This paper will focus on the respective cardiovascular effects of anabolic agents (anabolic androgenic steroids)4 BODY: ANABOLIC ANDROGENIC STEROIDS Anabolism can be defined as the synthesis of substances in the body. The word â€Å"anabolic† is derived from the Greek word â€Å"anabole† meaning â€Å"something which is thrown up† or â€Å"mound.† An androgen is a sex hormone responsible for the development of male sexual characteristics. The word â€Å"androgen† is also from the Greek word â€Å"andros† meaning â€Å"of a man†. Anabolic androgenic steroids are drugs that are structurally related to the cyclic rings characteristic of steroids and fall under anabolic agents according to WADA. They are therefore compounds that have the ability to induce higher rates of anabolism in organisms5. The first serious research into anabolic androgenic steroids commenced in the 1930s by the German Chemist Adolf Butenandt, who isolated androstenone from a thousand litres of urine. Further research on the effects of AASs was conducted by 1939 by the World Scientific community. Its use spread among athletes and body builders by the 1940s and 1950s and resulted in an embargo on its use by the time of the 1972 Olympics. In humans, anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) affect protein synthesis positively and protein breakdown negatively. Androgenic anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of the male hormone testosterone. According to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), there are two main classes of anabolic androgenic steroids: endogenous and exogenous. The endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids include testosterone, dihydrotestosterone and androstenedione while exogenous anabolic steroids include boldenone, formebolone, metabolome, stanozolol, furazabol and metandienone.6 Anabolic androgenic steroids are used by athletes through oral or intramuscular routes in three widespread routines: stacking, cycling and pyramiding. Stacking refers to an AAS administration routine in which more than one steroid is used at a time to cause a cumulatively higher effect. Cycling is a routine that involves the administration of an AAS for 6 to 12 weeks, followed by abstinence from steroids for 10 to 12 weeks and then returning to administration for another 6 to 12 weeks, effectively â€Å"cycling† the steroid. Pyramiding is another routine, one which stipulates that individuals begin with low doses of AASs and progressively increase the doses over a period of time. Use of AASs was initially envisioned as treatment of HIV-associated muscle wasting, sarcopenia (gradual age-related loss of skeletal muscle) and hypogonadal males. In recent years, however, about 5% to 14% of American college athletes have been using AAS for purposes unrelated to the intended purposes of the compound. A survey conducted in the United States of America also indicated that AAS use among community weight trainers attending gyms and health clubs was about 15% to 30%7 Mechanism Of Action Testosterone, the active component in AASs and its synthetic analogues, acts on target cells (usually skeletal muscles) by adhering to intracellular androgen receptors (AR)8. The AR-steroid complex binds to DNA in the nucleus, leading to transcription of various genes which lead to the production of a host of proteins that work to increase the size of muscles and the rate of muscle growth.8 After the binding of the AR-steroid complex, additional messenger RNA (mRNA) are formed. These mRNA move out of the nucleus and into the muscle cell cytoplasm where they bind to ribosomal RNA (rRNA), thus initiating translation, which will cause the synthesis of proteins in the Golgi apparatus12. These extra proteins are then integrated into the muscle cell, increasing its size. Studies have shown that androgen receptors on cells can be up-regulated in response to AAS exposure and by strength training. Upon exposure to testosterone and its analogues, there is hypertrophy of muscles that is as a re sult of an increase in the number of myocytes nuclei and the cross-sectional area of muscle fibres. Another mechanism by which AASs act is through glucocorticoid antagonism and growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) stimulation, which leads to an increase in muscle size and strength.7 Also, AASs act on the heart and major arteries by promoting the release of endothelial nitric oxide and the inhibition of smooth muscle tone of the vessels. This particular effect occurs only when physiologic amounts of testosterone and other AASs are present. Effects Desired Effects An amount of testosterone higher than the normal range (a supraphysiologic dose) has the tendency to increase muscle strength and mass by increasing protein synthesis (resulting in muscle hypertrophy) and increasing blood pressure, thereby enhancing the performance of athletes in sports2. It is also used in order to improve upon one’s physical appearance and also improve performance in body building. Due to these effects, anabolic androgenic steroids are used mainly by athletes taking part in sports such as baseball, rugby, competitive bodybuilding, competitive cycling and sprinting. Under normal circumstances, androgens are required for physiologic developmental and biological processes involving cardiac myocytes9. Cardiovascular effects of androgens include relaxation of vascular beds, reduction of afterload and quick increase in cardiac contractility, causing an increase in cardiac output9 hence, an increase in the supply of oxygen for oxidative phosphorylation in muscles. This results in a rise in the supply of ATP to the muscles, which will in turn enhance endurance and overall performance as more energy is available to the active muscles. Adverse Effects Major adverse effects that occur from prolonged anabolic steroid usage are hypertension, myocardial hypertrophy (especially left ventricular hypertrophy) myocardial infarction, arrhythmias and thromboembolic incidents. The basis of these effects is the action of androgen receptors on the cardiac myocytes as a result of the supraphysiologic AAS doses. At high doses, the vasodilatory effects of physiologic AAS are inhibited, along with an increase in the growth of cardiac tissue under the influence of GH and IGF-1. The actions of AR-steroid complexes are such that they increase the quantities of secondary messengers, in this case, calcium. Increased amounts of calcium in the cytoplasm of cardiac myocytes causes the release of apoptosis-causing factors such as apoptosis-inducing factor, caspase-9 and holocytochrome C. This initiates apoptosis, otherwise known as cell death, of the cardiac cells, which will in turn lead to myocardial infarctions.10 Another effect of supraphysiologic AAS doses is the elevation of blood pressure that results from renal sodium retention10. Retention of sodium would lead to increase in blood volume as sodium would create an osmotic gradient to draw water to itself. This process will increase venous return and eventually, stroke volume. Prolonged use of AASs will cause an increase in the diameters of the heart’s chambers and also change diastolic function and ventricular relaxation stemming from the continuous increase in venous return (preload). Another effect of the increased preload is left ventricular hypertrophy, which is found in a large number of AAS abusers. Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) can be explained as increase in size of the muscles in the left ventricle of the heart due to excess action. LVH remains a strong predictor of cardiovascular mortality and morbidity and could alternately be caused by direct action of AASs on the myocardium.10 The hypertrophy of the left ventricle is associated with the stimulatory effect of AASs on Growth Hormone (GH), which is directly linked to an increase in the inelastic elements (collagen) and cellular infiltration of the cardiac myocytes. Anabolic androgenic steroids have direct influence on the formation of thrombosis (blood clot resulting from platelets aggregation in a living organism). Thromboxane A2, a powerful platelet aggregator, and fibrinogen are positively affected by AASs. Production of prostacyclin, a form of prostaglandin I2 that acts as a platelet aggregator antagonist, however, is decreased. By these actions, AASs increase the risk of developing thrombosis as fibrinogen, which is a major factor in clot formation, and thromboxane A2 are increased in circulation while prostacyclin, which prevents the aggregation of platelets, is reduced in circulation. With increased aggregation of platelets, a free moving structure known as an embolus is produced. In the event that this embolus lodges in the lumen of a blood vessel and causes a halt in blood flow, thromboembolism is said to have occurred. The risk for this to occur is highly increased in AAS users and may cause myocardial infarctions and sudden cardiac d eath.10 AASs also catalyse various changes in lipid metabolism; the most noticeable being increases in LDL (low density lipoprotein) levels by approximately 20% and reductions in HDL (high density lipoprotein) levels by values ranging from 20% to 70%. Though the mechanism of this action is inadequately understood, it has been postulated that LDL levels increase due to the action of the enzyme hepatic triglyceride lipase (augmented by AASs) that causes increased catabolism of VLDL (very low density lipoproteins). These changes in lipoproteins (dyslipidaemia) will result in significantly increased risks of coronary artery disease.10 The above effects therefore suggest that there is increased risk for cardiovascular diseases among anabolic steroid users11. CONCLUSION From the information presented in this paper, it is clear that while anabolic androgenic steroids provide undue advantages to their users, they simultaneously predispose their users to a plethora of cardiovascular problems including, but not limited to, hypertension, arrhythmias, acute myocardial infarctions, thromboembolic episodes and sudden cardiac death. There is marked paucity of information on the cardiovascular effects and anabolic androgenic steroids among sportsmen and it is thus imperative that organisations, anti-doping agencies and providers collect and supply as much information as possible from and to athletes, physicians, coaches and parents in order to help in furthering the education of the risks involved in the use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Baron DA, Martin DM, Abol Magd S. Doping in sports and its spread to at-risk populations: an international review. World Psychiatry. 2007;6(2):118-123. 2. Press D. Drug Abuse In Athletes. 2014:95-105. 3. Sherwood L. Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems.; 2010. doi:9781111577438. 4. Doping Prevention: Anabolic agents. http://www.doping-prevention.sp.tum.de/substances-and-methods/anabolic-agents/anabolic-agents.html. Accessed June 3, 2015. 5. Sturmi JE, Diorio DJ. Anabolic agents. Clin Sports Med. 1998;17(2):261-282. doi:10.1016/S0278-5919(05)70080-6. 6. Urhausen A, Albers T, Kindermann W. Are the cardiac effects of anabolic steroid abuse in strength athletes reversibleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¯? 2004:496-501. doi:10.1136/hrt.2003.015719. 7. Evans NA. American Journal of Sports Team Physician ’ s Corner. 2004. doi:10.1177/0363546503262202. 8. Wilson C, Maass R, Estrada M. Cardiovascular Effects of Androgens. 1998. 9. Doping Prevention: Mode of action. http://www.doping-prevention.sp.tum.de/substances-and-methods/anabolic-agents/mode-of-action.html. Accessed June 3, 2015. 10. Achar S, Rostamian A, Narayan SM. Cardiac and metabolic effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse on lipids, blood pressure, left ventricular dimensions, and rhythm. Am J Cardiol. 2010;106(6):893-901. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.05.013. 11. Vanberg P, Atar D. Androgenic anabolic steroid abuse and the cardiovascular system. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2010;(195):411-457. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-79088-4_18. Page 1

Comparing Barry Lopezs A Presentation of Whales and Scott Russell Sand

Comparing Barry Lopez's A Presentation of Whales and Scott Russell Sander's Buckeye Was it just a coincidence that I had my first—televised—encounter with sperm whales only a day after I read Barry Lopez’s essay, â€Å"A Presentation of Whales†? Was my strong spiritual response to Scott Russell Sander’s â€Å"Buckeye† a sign that I, too, will feel the ghostly presences of my beloved kindred when they leave this world? No way! I am not a mystic. I am not supernaturally connected to sperm whales or spirits, but I will admit that I entertained self-important thoughts while reading both essays. Not only did I stare at the professional headshots of the writers before I read their essays; I adored them and empathized with their visions. Perhaps nature writers are advantaged: they can be scientific and not be perceived as being such by non-scientific readers. After all, the word ‘nature’ generates images of the earth and all of its sensory treasures, whereas ‘science’ generates images of laboratory coats, long calculations, laborious extractions, and obscure words like genome, polypeptide and spermatozoa. Nature writers are free to incorporate various genres in their writing, which interests a broad population of readers. Readers are attracted to writing styles that reinforce their subjective perceptions of themselves and the world. A readers’ opinion does not necessarily indicate the success or failure of a writer, but rather the state of mind of the reader when she approaches the piece. This is also how we approach people and events in our lives. We are animals, and therefore we must engage with nature. While Barry Lopez and Scott Russell Sanders have a keen sense of t he innate connection between animals and landscapes, ... ...aren’t scientific or historical, they are still objects in his immediate landscape. Alone, they are solitary objects, but together they create a story of human life. Curiosity and neediness attract humans to philosophy, in a similar way that they attract humans to religious dogma, cults and magic. Fortunately, nature narratives draw on human interests in various disciplines without simultaneously wreaking havoc on society. Writing helps us create and understand ideas. Personal values and scientific information are often used interchangeably by Barry Lopez and Scott Russell Sanders. Unless the reader is indifferent, both writers prove they are capable of illustrating essential elements of the human experience in both public and private moments. As readers, we are bonded to Lopez and Sanders because of our role in the innate chaos of human interaction.

Evaluation of Issues Project

When I first received the Issues Introduction Coursework element, I had no clue about which topic I wanted to cover. There is such a variety of Issues in our world ranging from political problems to crucial environmental issues. I decided I would mind map all of my ideas out (anything to do with issues) and I evaluated my choices. I wanted to create a piece on a topic, which is relevant now and has a very strong history – an issue that needs tackling now. I decided I would go down the root of abuse (social issue), which is a very vague topic. It includes sub-topics of physical abuse, discrimination, child abuse and many more. Abuse is a topic, which has affected the British and nearly every single person on this planet: on an international scale we have child labour to electric chairs. This needs to stop now: this may be the root cause of anger, of hatred, of breakdowns in relationships. Abuse is a topic, which has also affected me in some ways during my life, and I thought it was time to put some of my own background into my piece of work; this is a skill, which many directors use in their films. Eg. Steven Spielberg is Jewish, and his film ‘Schindler's List' has its point of view to sympathise with the Jews because of the cruelty to them from the Nazis. I was influenced by this director to be very subjective about a topic I am very serious about. I integrated my two art forms through a film. This is using ‘moving images' and ‘drama. ‘ It is a simple idea but the procedure and the work takes a long time to create. I decided I would use film to show my intended audience (young children, aged 10-12) what the effects of bullying and abuse can cause. A film can use spontaneous language, and I kept the scenes short so they were memorable: this is the purpose of a film. First of all, from my original mind map I began to think of topics, which could be incorporated into my project from abuse. I decided I would go down the root of school bullying, a typical situation which takes place, but it has hybrid topics. It covers discrimination, domestic abuse, physical abuse, verbal abuse and the mentality of bullies. This is because abuse does not come in one form – abuse is caused by something, which enrages people. Through my research I found that through psychology, abuse is caused by a mental issue, which enrages people, which causes a physical outcome (usually negative). There then, is a solution how to calm down, how apologise and stay calm. But when somebody gets bored they begin to aggravate somebody, which can bring on this anger again. It is a â€Å"vicious cycle. † This is exactly what my piece intends to do. It shows that ‘bullying never ends' and ‘bullying never stops' and that whenever there is a peak of happiness it eventually falls back down and everybody has to start rebuilding their lives again. This is a scene in my piece at the end of the film. Another theme is that ‘abuse creates more abuse. Her mother has domestically abused Zoi and therefore it's â€Å"mother-like-daughter†: Zoi begins to bully people too! I created scenes, which would evoke the audience about scenes of abuse, and bullying and I wrote them with more dialogue to create a stream of consciousness (just like Zephaniah's Neighbours) and this would engage my audience. I researched how girls were mean to each other (using Mean Girls) and I used some of these girls' characteristics in my own piece. I lastly created a storyboard with quick images and shots on how the audience was going to see this film. I drafted the scenes and the storyboard so I could see what improvements could be made to make my intended audience to make them even more shocked! I used a style model to show how to write and how to present a film script. I took the layout and the font type of this piece to make my own script look professional. I also incorporated some of my critical analysis pieces' work like having many twists in the films. The Guardian Advert ends with a twist using different shots; I decided I would use my own twist. These are that Zoi is getting domestically abused, and Stacey kills off Anna at the end. It is a very depressing ending, which is what I want my audience to feel left with. I want them to connect, to empathise with Zoi and Anna and show that dreadful things can affect our lives. I want to show my audience that bullies are, and will always be, hated. When also creating my advert poster, I looked at some posters showing abuse and took ideas from here. Like the silhouettes; the purpose of using a silhouette is so the audience can try and convey their own idea to what the character really looks like rather than just filling it black. I also put on some media to give it a modern touch (eg. ewspaper and magazine cuttings for the title) and I also edited the â€Å"girl's† body to look devilish. A first judgement would make you think that this girl is evil, which is an idea taken from my analysis pieces. Actually, the devil girl becomes a nice, well-mannered pleasant character! My strengths in creating this piece were being able to create a strong film with a message; my scenes were very strong in the way they were acted and the range of shots I used emphasised the raw emotion I wanted to convey to my audience. I used different types of literacy techniques and dramatic techniques too. Eg. In the soliloquy of Anna (a dramatic monologue), I wanted my audience to feel sympathetic to her. My weakness was time keeping. I had a plan, and I tried to stick to it. It took too long filming and editing though. That was the longest part of the project – but in the end I completed my project with success. If I were going to do this project again I would keep time-management at the top of my list because everything else (portfolio etc. ) fell behind. I think that writing my scenes were also strong using a pragmatic lexical choice to involve the audience's own colloquial language incorporated into my film piece. This would engage the audience because it would feel very comfortable, informal and sort of â€Å"eavesdropping. † Examples of this are â€Å"mates. † I experimented with swearing, which is very bad for a young demographic to hear, but in the end, children will end up hearing this language once they get older anyways. In my opinion, I think that my final piece is very successful in putting its point across to my demographic (young children). If my audience were watching this then they would feel shocked at the end and all the way through, which is its intended primary purpose, with the second being to entertain. This film is full of a hybrid of issues and plot twisting. It conveys symbols of trust and loyalty (hugs and holding hands) as well as scenes, which can shatter trust (i. e. letter in the locker). My piece not only conveys the theme of abuse through a modern media type (film), but it is very personal to those who are murdered, or commit suicide, being school students, being different today! I honestly think I have done a great job in presenting my issues to influence young children to NOT get involved in bullying or abuse!

Definition and Examples of Root Words in English

Definition and Examples of Root Words in English In English grammar and morphology, a root is a  word or word element (in other words, a morpheme) from which other words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes. Also called a root word. In  Greek and Latin Roots  (2008), T.  Rasinski et al.  define root as a semantic unit.  This simply means that a root is a word part that means something. It is a group of letters with meaning. Etymology From the Old English, rootExamples and Observations Latin is the most common source of English root words; Greek and Old English are the two other major sources.Some  root words are  whole words and others are word parts. Some root words have become free morphemes and can be used as separate words, but others cannot. For instance, cent comes from the Latin root word centum, meaning hundred. English treats the word as a root word that can be used independently and in combination with affixes, as in century, bicentennial  and centipede. The words cosmopolitan, cosmic and microcosm come from the Greek root word kosmos, meaning universe; cosmos is also an independent root word in English. (Gail Tompkins, Rod Campbell, David Green, and Carol Smith,  Literacy for the 21st Century: A Balanced Approach. Pearson Australia, 2015) Free Morphs and Bound Morphs Because a root tells us more about the meaning of a word than anything else, the first thing we ask about a complex word is often: What is its root? Often a complex word has more than one root, as in blackbird. . . .In our native and nativized vocabulary, roots can usually appear as independent words, for which reason they are called free morphs. This makes it particularly easy to find the roots of words like black-bird, re-fresh, and book-ish-ness. In Latin and Greek, roots most often do not occur as separate words: they are bound morphs, meaning they can only appear when tied to other components. For example, the root of concurrent is curr run. which is not an independent word in English or even in Latin.(Keith Denning, Brett Kessler, and William R. Leben. English Vocabulary Elements, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2007) Roots and Lexical Categories Complex words typically consist of a root morpheme and one or more affixes. The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots typically belong to a lexical category, such as noun, verb, adjective, or preposition. . . . Unlike roots, affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes. For example, the affix -er is a bound morpheme that combines with a verb such as teach, giving a noun with the meaning one who teaches.(William OGrady, et al., Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction, 4th ed. Bedford/St. Martins, 2001) Simple and Complex Words [M]orphologically simple words, which contain only a single root morpheme, may be compared to morphologically complex words which contain at least one free morpheme and any number of bound morphemes. Thus, a word like desire may be defined as a root morpheme constituting a single word. Desirable, by contrast, is complex, combining a root morpheme with the bound morpheme -able. More complex again is undesirability which comprises one root and three bound morphemes: undesireableity. Notice also how, in complex words of this sort, the spelling of the root may be altered to conform to the bound morphemes around it. Thus, desire becomes desir- while beauty will be transformed into beauti- in the formation of beautiful and of the increasingly complex beautician. (Paul Simpson, Language Through Literature: An Introduction. Routledge, 1997) Pronunciation: ROOT Also Known As: base, stem